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Paula Gourley Discuss the contribution feminism has made to our understanding of the sociology of religion. Illustrate your arguments with sociological examples. The sociology of religion examines the significance of the role of religion within society. It is not concerned with philosophical or theological issues such as the existence of God. Rather the sociology of religion examines how beliefs and practices affect behaviour, how religion is understood and how it influences social life. It also looks at the characteristics common to all religions and the factors which influence the way it is organised.
Feminism is one area within sociology which takes a critical view of religion. Feminists regard religion as a source of social opium to sedate and control women. They believe patriarchy rather than capitalism is the source of women’s oppression and religion is a means of patriarchal control. ‘Feminist theory has been concerned with enabling women and men to understand the subordination and exploitation of women’ (Selfe and Starbuck, 1998:52). As de Beauvoir (1953) argued men have gained control over religious scripts and ideologies and this ideology permeates all of the social institutions.
By the same token religion legitimates women’s social roles as wives and mothers and god will reward women for their suffering in this life in the next one. (de Beauvoir, 1953: cited by Kirby et al 2000:444). One social purpose of religion is to reinforce the socialisation process. At birth we are born into a religious community and religion becomes part of our identity. According to Tischler et al, ‘religion performs a number of important social functions’ (Tischler,1986: cited by Selfe & Starbuck, 1998:26). The Functionalist view of religion is that it brings people together and promotes social cohesion.
It reaffirms the groups values, beliefs and norms. It helps transmit cultural heritage and offers emotional support in times of need. Functionalists like Durkheim take a positive interpretation of religion and Durkheim argued that ‘religion was the source of all harmonious social life’ (Selfe and Starbuck 1998:27) despite his atheism. However in countries like Northern Ireland religious identities have resulted in disharmony. Durkheim sees religion as a social construction and famously said that religion is ‘society worshipping itself’. Aldridge, 2004:8) He argued the entity we see as God is actually the power of society. However this is difficult to prove in a scientific way. Durkheim distinguished between the sacred and the profane. He argued sacred things and places become invested over time with awe and holy significance. He suggested sacred ceremonies and rituals draw people together and give a sense of community, belonging and protection. In modern society events like George Best’s funeral help to illustrate this. Durkheim argued that religion creates social order, people conform, it shapes their behaviour and legitimates the political system.
Durkheim also suggested that religion provides meaning and purpose and this is why life-course transitions are marked by religious ceremonies. It reinforces your belief and your change in status has purpose. Durkheim argued that religion socialises individuals into the culture of society and that this is functional as it creates social order and stability within society by shaping our behaviour, therefore all stable societies must have a religion. He suggested the shared beliefs and norms of society becomes their ‘collective consciousness’.
However the divisive influence of religion finds little mention in Durkheim’s work. Weber was critical of Durkheim’s interpretation, instead suggesting that religion can promote division, conflict and change as well as solidarity. When individuals feel very close to their own religious beliefs it is easy to feel different from those who do not share your beliefs (Aldridge, 2004). In contrast Karl Marx was influenced by Feuerbach who thought that religion was a human construction and described it in terms of myths which emerge from people trying to understand their reality and make sense of nature. For Marx too religion appealed to the person: who has either not yet found himself or has already lost himself again…… It is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world…. It is the opium of the people’ (Selfe and Starbuck,1998:22). Marx believed that people become alienated from each other due to the economic system, in which capitalism divides people through class inequalities. Religion emerges as a product of this alienation in which people try to gain acceptance of their lot in life. Among poor immigrant groups religion remains strong.
Religion is therefore a drug and a product of society which makes things bearable. The caste system in India which relies on Hindu religious beliefs helps to maintain and justify caste discrimination (Selfe and Starbuck, 1998). Even though Marx acknowledged the comforting role of religion, he focused on its repressive, restraining qualities which help to maintain the ‘status quo’. He suggested that often religion provides justification for inequalities of wealth and power and argues that we must free ourselves and not fear the gods we have created.
He argued that religion prevents people from challenging the source of their oppression and provides them with a ‘false consciousness’. People believe they will be compensated for their suffering in the next world. Like Functionalists, Marxists agree social institutions control and socialise individuals but suggest this is a negative factor. Marxists suggest the dominant beliefs and norms are used by the powerful groups within society to dominate. They believe churches as social institutions socialise individuals into the capitalist culture and that religious teachings inhibit revolutionary change (Ferrante, 2006).
Today religion continues to legitimate many public and social events e. g. prayers are said in parliament each morning, therefore it may appear that religion still has a significant role. Also critics of Marx suggest he placed too much emphasis on the ruling class using religion as a tool of control (Selfe & Starbuck, 1998). However Feminists follow Marx’s interpretation and similarly take a critical view of religion. They believe however that patriarchy rather than capitalism is the source of women’s oppression.
Feminists see the church as a patriarchal institution which socialises individuals, especially women into a patriarchal culture. Religion is used to control females physically, emotionally and spiritually and typically women are subordinate to men. Bowker and Holm (1994) suggest women do have roles to play in religion but it is likely to be in the private rather than the public sphere. History has been written by men by and large and conveniently overlooks the activities and achievements of women. In several religions women were more respected and held higher positions at earlier periods of history.
All major world religions are male dominated e. g. ‘In Buddhism, the most senior nun must defer to the most junior monk’ ( Bowker and Holm, 1994:xiii). However the way women are treated within religion has to be seen in the wider almost universal, patriarchal context that regards men as superior to women. Men’s greater physical strength is used as an excuse to place restrictions on women’s dress, behaviour and freedom for their ‘protection’. Female sexuality is another cause of men’s negative attitudes to women, and this is evident in many religious beliefs and practices. Menstruation and childbirth are almost universally regarded as polluting’ (Bowker and Holm, 1994:xiv). In Hinduism for example during menstruation or pregnancy, women are not allowed to approach the family shrine. Christianity has also had an ambivalent attitude towards women manifesting itself in the attitudes of women, symbolised by Eve and the Virgin Mary. Although the Virgin Mary was exalted in a male-dominated church ‘her motherhood was linked to her virginity and provided no contradiction to the negativity surrounding women’s sexuality’ (Bowker and Holm, 1994:xvi).
Catholic feminists argue that they would like to see Mary recognised as a co-redeemer and that the Catholic Church has allowed Mary’s life of submission to become an unhelpful role model to young girls. Feminists suggest Mary was an early political activist promoting the views of her son after his death (Selfe & Starbuck, 1998). Michael Foucault argued that religious institutions not only control women’s sexuality but they also influence women in their relationships and how they think and act. These influences impact on dietary arrangements (e. g. asting and abstinence), dress, bodily functions and reproduction (e. g. consummating a marriage and having children and abortion) (Selfe & Starbuck, 1998). Some of the earliest feminist research came from Simone De Beauvoir who found that in terms of religious ideologies, men do have dominance and their male god legitimates their interpretations. She stressed that religious institutions advocate traditional family structures that helps to place women in more subservient roles. In this respect religion acts as an agency of social control of women and children.
For example the Koran teaches ‘Men are in charge of women…… hence good women are obedient’ (Selfe & Starbuck, 1998). In her historical comparative research, Armstrong (1993) studied ancient and modern civilizations and found that ancient civilizations were polytheistic where women had central religious roles. However invasions from northern cultures spread the system of patriarchy and replaced polytheist religions with monotheism and a male-dominated belief system that reinforced that patriarchy (Selfe & Starbuck, 1998).
Another example that illustrates the feminist view of religion as a patriarchal device is historical research on Witchcraft. Witches were indentified as feminine and evil and Power (1975) said ‘The view of women as an instrument of the devil, a thing at once inferior and evil, took shape in the earliest period of Church history and was indeed originated by the Church’. (Power, 1975: cited by Selfe and Starbuck, 1998:54). This trend continued and it is now a general assumption in all fairy stories that witches are female.
Anderson and Gordon argued that ‘witch hunts’ were a form of mysogony used to get rid of and control difficult women. On the other hand Turner (1989) suggests ‘witch hunts’ were used to exclude women from practising medicine. Indeed in Britain it was not until 1899 that women were allowed to train as doctors (Turner, 1989: cited by Kirby et al 2000: 444) which gives some validity to this argument. Feminists have also directed similar criticisms at other forms of religion. For second generation Muslim women in Britain, Islam still has power over their patterns of thought and behaviour.
However arguments against this suggest that adherence to Islam and its codes is liberating rather than controlling. Their clothes do not draw attention to their bodies which some suggest provides greater levels of security in a sexist society (Selfe & Starbuck, 1998). In March 1994 the first women priests were ordained in the Church of England. This resulted in male clergy leaving the Church in protest. ‘Feminists argue that there is no biblical demand that the priesthood should be of one gender’ (Selfe & Starbuck 1998:pg55).
Historian Elizabeth Stanton made an analysis of the Scriptures and suggested that the equality intended between men and women was not reflected in the Bible because it had been written by men (Selfe & Starbuck, 1998). Yet it is all the more surprising given that women tend to commit more religious beliefs and practices. It could be argued that since women have endured lower status, pay and power they use religion as a form of consolation. Today more and more women are becoming involved in sects and denominations where they have more opportunities for status advancement in comparision with mainstream churches.
As more women turn to religious fundamentalism, particulary in America, India and Afghanistan Feminists suggest the reasons for this lies in the socialisation these women have experienced. Cohen and Kennedy argue (Giddens, 2005) that ‘a return to fundamentalism always empowers men’ and the rise in religious fundamentalism is a response to the ‘swinging sixties’ and a fear of this undermining religion and society today. However such views may be deemed biased and ethnocentric. Many fundamentalists are women and many have welcomed the ‘liberation’ offered by the religious choices they have made (Czerniawski, 2003).
Feminism has made a vast contribution to our understanding of the social role of religion and continues to do. Women have played decisive yet historically understated roles within religious movements and many have had enormous influence. Feminists argue that religion can be seen as a mechanism of socialisation and social control of women despite the fact women generally make up more of the congregation than men. The Church of England tends to emphasise the ‘traditional’ role of women within the family and the Catholic Church exludes women from key positions within their organisation.
However generalisations are dangerous and can be misleading. In spite of these patriarchal attitudes every religion can tell of courageous, competent women leaders of earlier centuries ‘(for example Margaret Fell, the Quaker who exercised an extensive and intensive preaching ministry)’ (Bowker and Holm, 1994: xviii) who provide encouragement today to women who find themselves with a much less significant role to play. Things are changing and the work of feminists in attacking traditional doctrine is proving to be effective in raising the religious consciousness of men and women (Selfe & Starbuck 1998).
In response to the work of feminists the Catholic Church has become more tolerant of the use of artificial methods of birth control. Brown notes how in this area ‘the Vatican has stopped struggling against democracy and started to struggle against feminism instead’ ( Selfe & Starbuck, 1998:56). There are however both positive and negative features in all religions with regards to the role and status of women and cultural relativism plays a part in how effective feminism can be, within a particular religion.
Unfortunately even today within Christianity negative attitudes towards women still persist, however the feminist vision of liberation has generated powerful movements for social change. It is perhaps optimistic in hoping that feminists will feel free to consider themselves ‘Christian feminists’ as Julie Birchill does, particularly as some feminists consider this to be an oxymoron. On the other hand perhaps religious doctrines will remain for some feminists like Cath Elliott, incompatible with the quest for womens rights.
However women should always have freedom of choice and feminism plays an effective role in the sociology of religion in bringing these issues and debates and our understanding of them to the fore within society (Jezebel website). B I B L I O G R A P H Y Aldridge, A. E. (2004) Defining Religion in Sociology Review 14(2) pp8-9 Armstrong, K. (1993) The End of Silence. Women and Priesthood: London: Clague Feminist Theology Bowker, J. And Holm, J. (1994) Women in Religion. London: Continuum Czerniawski, G. (2003) Religion and gender in Sociology Review 13(2) pp6-7 Ferrante, J. (2006) Sociology a global perspective sixth edition. U. S. A. Thompson Wadsworth Fulcher and Scott (2003) Sociology second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press Giddens (2006) Sociology fifth edition. Cambridge: Polity Press Kirby, M. Kidd, W. Koubel, F. Barter, J. Hope, T. Kirton, A. Madry, N. Manning, P. Triggs, K. (2000) Sociology in Perspective. Bath: Bath Press Selfe, P. and Starbuck, M. (1998) Religion. Bath: Bath Press www. umilta. net/equally logged on 3. 03. 09 www. womenpriest. org/theology/newmanb. asp logged on 3. 03. 09 www. knowledge4africa. com/worldhistory/middle-ages logged on 3. 03. 09 www. jezebel. com/5038902/are-faith-and-feminism-compatible logged on 23. 03. 09