Words: 9977
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING Study Material Prepared By INSTITUTE OF COST AND WORKS ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA for Junior Accounts Officer(Civil) Examination Conducted By CONTROLLER GENERAL OF ACCOUNTS 1 BASICS OF COST ACCOUNTING 1. 0 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 1. 6 1. 7 1. 8 1. 9 1. 10 1. 11 1. 12 1. 3 Evolution of Cost Accounting, Cost Concepts and Cost Classification Introduction Evolution of Cost Accounting Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting Management Accounting Financial, Cost and Management Accounting Cost Concept and Cost Object Cost Management Cost Classification Methods of Costing Techniques of Costing Specific Cost Systems Cost Department and its relationship with other Departments Installation of Costing System Specimen Questions with Answers Test Yourself Page . No 1 1 2 3 4 . 5 6 7 10 12 13 14 16 17 18 20 ?? ?? 1. 0 1. 1 EVOLUTION OF COST ACCOUNTING, COST CONCEPTS AND COST CLASSIFICATION INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, cost accounting is considered as the technique and process of ascertaining costs of a given thing. In sixties, the definition of cost accounting was modified as ‘the application of costing and cost accounting principles, methods and techniques to the science, art and practice of cost control and ascertainment of profitability of goods, or services’. It includes the presentation of information derived therefrom for the purpose of managerial decision making. It clearly emphasises the importance of cost accountancy achieved during the period by using cost concepts in more and more areas and helping management to arrive at good
STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 2 Cost and Management Accounting business decisions. Today, the scope of cost accounting has enlarged to such an extent that it now refers to the collection and providing all sorts of information that assists the executives in fulfilling the organisational goals. Modern cost accounting is being termed as management accounting, since managers being the primary user of accounting information are increasingly using the data provided by the accounts, setting objectives and controlling the operations of the business. 1. 2
EVOLUTION OF COST ACCOUNTING Accounting is a very old profession. Financial accounting is in use with the dawn of civilisation. As soon as counting and arithmetic started, and the use of money replaced the barter system, the financial accounting emerged in some form or other. However, cost accounting is traceable to the earlier part of the seventeenth century. The earliest reference of cost accounting can be found in Robert Loder’s farm accounts 1610???20. However, the industrial revolution in the 18th century brought about extensive mechanisation of production system resulting in large scale production.
Some sporadic efforts were made in U. K. and U. S. A. to install factory cost systems as far back as 1805. But the concept of prime cost was used around 1875 by some industrialists. Between 1885 and 1901, a number of publications from London and New York explained the cost of manufacture, the distribution of establishment charges, the commercial organisation of the factories, factory accounts ??? their principles and practices, and finally a complete text book on Cost Accounting Theory and Practice was published by J. L. Nicholson from New York in 1913.
The cost accounting concepts advanced further with the beginning of the First World War. The ‘cost plus’ concept was introduced during the war time in order to avoid delay in executing urgent supplies. The contracts were entered on the basis that the supplier would be reimbursed the cost ‘plus’ a fixed percentage to cover administration and other overhead expenses and profit. Immediately, two things happened. One, a demand for qualified persons to calculate cost and two, deliberation of cost concepts for identifying the items or elements that enter the cost.
The profession of cost accountancy got a real boost-up. More and more people got interested in the profession. In 1919, the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants was established in U. K. , which is now known as the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) at London. Simultaneously, in U. S. A. the National Association of Cost Accountants, which is now known as the National Association of Accountants, was also established at New York. Under the leadership of these two institutes, the profession and the concepts of cost accounting developed significantly.
Before the Second World War, the mechanism of standard cost accounting, budgetary control, flexible budgeting and direct costing became known in the U. S. A. and U. K. In India, prior to independence, there were a few cost Accountants, and they were qualified mainly from l. C. M. A. (now CIMA) London. During the Second World War, the need for developing the profession in the country was felt, and the leadership of forming an Indian Institute was taken by some members of Defence Services employed at Kolkata. Costing profession was in an embryonic stage at that time.
However, with the enactment of the Cost and Works Accountants of India Act, 1959, the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 3 Basics of Cost Accounting India was established at Kolkata. The Institute has grown in stature, having Fellow, Associate and Student Members. The Institute controls its function through its Head Office at Kolkata and four Regional Offices at Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai. Each of the Regional Offices has several chapter Offices to look after the interest of the local members and the profession.
The profession assumed further importance in 1968, when the Government of India introduced selective Cost Audit under Section 233-B of the Companies Act, 1956 and framed Cost Accounting Record Rules, 1968 for this purpose. Although Cost Audit is not compulsory, but selective for a few nominated industries yet the profession was greatly benefited, and more persons are now interested to join the profession. Today, the extensive use of cost accounting techniques has led to new concept of information technology, operational control and performance measurement.
The concepts of Activity Based Costing (ABC), strategic control systems, flexible production system etc. are key words for modern cost management. 1. 3 FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND COST ACCOUNTING In financial accounts, the monetary transactions of the business are recorded, classified and analysed in an orderly manner, so as to prepare periodic results in the form of profit and loss account or income statement and balance sheet, indicating the financial position of the business at the end of that period.
The financial accounting is guided by various rules and regulations, some of which are mandatory. The system cannot normally deviate from the accepted accounting practices. The object of financial accounting is to provide information mainly to outsiders such as shareholders, investors, government authorities, financial institutions, etc. The analysis and interpretation of financial data contained in the income statement and the balance sheet enable persons interested in the business to make meaningful judgement about the profitability, liquidity and solvency of the enterprise.
Besides, income-tax, central excise, banks and insurance companies rely on the data contained in the financial statements. Cost accounting, on the other hand, deals with the ascertainment of the cost of product or service. It is a tool of management that provides detailed records and reports on the costs and expenses associated with the operations, mainly for internal control and decision making. Cost accounting basically relates to the utilisation of resources, such as material, labour, machines, etc. nd provides information like products cost, process cost, service or utility cost, inventory value, etc. so as to enable management taking important decisions like fixing price, choosing products, preparing quotations, releasing or withholding inventory, etc. The objective of cost accounting is to provide information to internal managers for better planning and control of operations and taking timely decisions. In the early stages, cost accounting was considered as an extension of financial accounting. Cost records were maintained separately.
Cost information and data were collected from financial books, since all monetary transactions are entered in the financial accounts only. After developing product cost or service cost and valuation of inventory, the costing profit and loss account is prepared. The profit and loss figures so derived by the two sets of books i. e. financial accounts and cost accounts, would have to be reconciled, since some of the income and expenditure recorded in STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 4 Cost and Management Accounting inancial books do not enter into product cost, while some of the expenses are included in cost accounts on notional basis i. e. without having incurred actual expense. However, a system of integrated account has been developed subsequently, wherein cost and financial accounts are integrated avoiding maintining two sets of books. The basic difference between financial and cost accounting may be summarised as follows: Financial Accounting 1. Accounting of monetary transactions of the business. 2. Consists of recording, classification and analysis of financial transactions. 3.
Leads to preparation of income statement and balance sheet at periodic interval. 4. Aims at external reporting to the shareholders, investors, Government authorities and other outside parties. 5. The accounting systems are mandatory and structured as per legal and other requirements. 6. Subject to verification by external auditor. 1. 2. 3. Cost Accounting Accounting of product cost or service cost. Consists of developing product or service cost with elementwise cost breakdown. Leads to development of product or service cost, indicating profitability of each product or service as and when required.
Aims at internal reporting both routine as well as special reporting to managers for internal control and decision making. The system is much less structured and is not mandatory, except those covered by cost audit required u/s 233-B of the Companies Act, 1956 Cost audit is not compulsory but selective to some specific industries/products. 4. 5. 6. 1. 4 MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING Management accounting is not a specific system of accounts, but could be any form of accounting which enables a business to be conducted more effectively and efficiently. Management accounting in the words of Robert S.
Kaplan, is a system that collects, classifies, summaries, analyses and reports information that will assist managers in their decision making and control activities. Unlike financial accounting, where the primary emphasis is on reporting outsiders, management accounting focuses on internal planning and control activities. Therefore management accounting requires the collection, analysis and interpretation not only financial or cost data, but also other data such as sales, price, product demands and measures of physical quantities and capacities.
In the process, the system utilises all techniques of financial and cost accounting including marginal or direct costing, standard costing, budgetary control, etc. Management accounting therefore appears as the extension of the horizon of cost accounting towards newer areas of management. Management accounting is largely concerned with providing economic information to managers for achieving organisational goals. The information flow system is, therefore, extremely important while designing the system.
Managers at each level must have a clear understanding about the objectives and goals assigned and receiving flow of relevant information. It is important to note that overabundance of irrelevant information is as bad as lack of relevant information. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 5 Basics of Cost Accounting 1. 5 FINANCIAL, COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING Having discussed the differences and similarities between the financial, cost and management accounting systems, we will now illustrate the difference with the help of an example : In Financial Accounts (in Rs. 000) : Current year Previous year 1200 9 1209 184 760 944 200 744 115 26 124 8 19 8 1044 165 Income : Sales Other income Expenditure : Opening stock of finished goods & work in progress Add: Purchases/consumption of raw materials Less : Closing stock of finished goods and work in progress Cost of goods consumed/sold Manufacturing expenses Selling expenses Salaries wages employee benefits Interest on loan Depreciation Amortisation of preliminary expenses TOTAL Profit before tax 1600 15 1615 200 880 1080 144 936 124 40 175 9 21 10 1315 300
The statement reveals that the business has made comparatively higher profit than previous year through increased sales, lower material cost, controlled factory expenses, better inventory management, etc. , but it does not reflect how the profit was earned, or what was the profitability of each of the products. In Cost Accounts Cost accounting records reveal the following results: Productwise profit statement (Rs. ‘000) Cost elements Product X Product Y Product Z Direct material 400 276 260 Direct wages 50 40 30 Direct expense 10 4 6 PRIME COST 460 320 236 Applied overheads: Factory, admn. selling & distrn. 93 73 54 COST OF SALES 553 393 350 PROFIT/ (LOSS) 147 207 (50) SALES 700 600 300 Total 936 120 20 1076 220 1296 304 1600 STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 6 Cost and Management Accounting The profit statement above leads to further analysis of product costs to find out what went wrong with product Z? Should it be discontinued? If so, what would be the effect on profit? Obviously, the answers cannot be obtained straightaway from the above statement.
In fact, some further details will be required to find out the extent of variable expenses included in the applied overheads, so that ail expenses can be classified under product costs, which are variable with the increase or reduction of unit-product and period costs which are fixed overhead expenses and remain unaffected with change in volume during the period. This technique of marginal cost system is applied and the profit statement reveals the following position : COST ELEMENTS PRODUCT X Rs. ‘000 700 400 50 30 480 220 PRODUCT Y Rs. ‘000 600 276 40 14 330 270 PRODUCT Z Rs. ‘000 300 260 30 8 298 2 TOTAL Rs. 000 1600 936 120 52 1108 492 188 304 SALES (A) Less: Direct cost of sales : Material Labour Expenses TOTAL (B) CONTRIBUTION (A ??? B. ) Less: Fixed overheads PROFIT The above statement indicates the relative profitability of the three products and also establishes the fact that the product Z just recovers its direct cost of sales. Investigation shall immediately start to find out whether ??? (a) material cost is too high, or (b) there is generation of excessive scrap and defective, or (c) the selling price is too low. When such questions are raised, the dividing line between cost accounting and management accounting vanishes.
With a view to increase overall efficiency and profit improvement, the management accountant will have to collect various data for analysing other norms to judge efficient use of resources. For example, he may find out that there is more stress on product Y than product X while establishing costly materials used in the products fearing drop in sales. A value engineering exercise on the usage of materials for Product X may reveal the scope for further substitution without impairing quality. A 15% drop in material cost i. e. 15% of Rs. 400, will increase the profit by Rs. 0 i. e. by 8. 6%. Now, this exercise can be done by the cost accountant or management accountant with the assistance of marketing, industrial engineering, production, purchasing and materials management departments. Can you, therefore, make any line of demarcation between cost and management accounting today? 1. 6 COST CONCEPT AND COST OBJECT The dictionary meaning of cost is “a loss or sacrifice”, or “an amount paid or required in payment for a purchase or for the production or upkeep of something, often measured in terms of effort or time expended”.
C I M A Terminology defines cost as ‘resources sacrificed or forgone to achieve a specific objective’. Cost is generally measured in monetary terms. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 7 Basics of Cost Accounting Cost is the amount of expenditure (actual or notional) incurred on or attributable to, a specified thing or activity. Thus, material cost of a product will mean the expenses incurred in procuring, storing and using materials in the product. Similarly, labour cost will represent that part of payment made to the workmen for time spent on the product during its manufacture.
Again, the term ‘cost’ can hardly be meaningful without using a suffix or a prefix. The cost is always ascertained with reference to some object, such as, material, Iabour, direct, indirect, fixed, variable, job, process, etc. Thus, each suffix or prefix implies certain attribute which will explain its nature and limitations. Cost object is defined by Charles T. Horngren as ‘any activity for which a separate measurement of cost is desired’. It may be an activity, or operation in which resources, like materials, labour, etc. are consumed.
The cost object may be a product or service, a project or a department, or even a program like eradication of illiteracy. Again, the same cost may pertain to more than one cost objects simultaneously. For example, material cost may be a part of product cost as well as production department cost. 1. 7 COST MANAGEMENT The techniques and process of ascertaining cost involve three steps, viz. (i) Collection of expenditure or cost data, (iii) Classification of expenditure as per cost elements, function, etc. and (iii) Allocation and apportionment of expenditure to the cost centres and cost units.
The system accumulates and classifies expenditure according to the elements of costs, and then, the accumulated expenditure is allocated and apportioned to cost objects i. e. cost centres and cost units. We should, therefore, know what are cost elements, cost centres and cost units. Elements of Cost For the purpose of identification, accounting and control, breakup of cost into its elements is essential. Elements are related to the process of manufacture i. e. the conversion of raw materials into finished products.
Costs are normally broken down into three basic elements, namely, material, labour and expense. Material cost includes all materials consumed in the process of manufacture up to the primary packing. Labour cost includes all remuneration paid to the staff and workmen for conversion of raw materials into finished products. Expenses consist of the cost of utilities and services used for the conversion process including notional cost for the use of owned assets. Each of the cost elements can be further divided into direct and indirect cost.
Direct costs are those which can be identified with or related to the product or services, so much so that an increase or decrease of an unit of product or service will affect the cost proportionately. Indirect cost, on the other hand, cannot be identified or traced to a given cost object in economical way and are related to the expenses incurred for maintaining facilities for such production or services. Thus, the elements of cost may be summarised as follows ??? (a) Direct materials and indirect materials, (b) Direct wages and indirect wages, (c) Direct expense and indirect expense
STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 8 Cost and Management Accounting The aggregate of direct materials cost, direct wages and direct expense is called Prime cost, while indirect materials cost, indirect wages and indirect expenses are collectively called overhead cost. Overheads are classified into production overheads i. e. indirect costs relating to manufacturing activities, administration overheads i. e. costs relating to formulating the policy, directing the organisation and controlling operations and selling and distribution overheads i. e. ndirect costs relating to the activity of creating and stimulating demand and securing orders as well as operations relating to distribution of goods from factory warehouse to customers. Factory cost, cost of production and cost of sales are arrived at by adding respective overheads to prime cost, factory cost and cost of production as indicated in the chart below :??? Direct materials cost Direct wages Direct expenses PRIME COST Factory overhead FACTORY COST Administration overhead COST OF PRODUCTION Selling and distribution overhead COST OF SALES Rs. x x x x x x x x x Allocated and Apportioned Cost
Cost allocation is the allotment of the whole items of costs to cost centres or cost units. Cost apportionment refers to the allotment of proportions of item of cost to cost centres or cost units. A cost which is allocated to a cost centre is a direct cost of that cost centre, whereas the cost which is apportioned to different cost centres on suitable basis is an indirect cost of that cost centre. Thus, direct costs are allocated, since they can be directly identified with a cost centre or cost unit, and indirect costs are apportioned expenditure. The concept of direct and indirect cost is very important for costing purposes.
Cost Centre Cost centre is defined as a location, person or item of equipment (or group of them) in respect of which costs may be ascertained and related to cost units for the purposes of cost control. It is the smallest segment of activity or area of responsibility for which costs are accumulated. Thus cost centres can be of two kinds, viz. (a) Impersonal cost centre consisting of a location or item of equipment (or group of these) such as machine shop, and (b) Personal cost centre consisting of a person or a group of persons such as factory manager, sales manager, etc.
Cost centres are also classified in manufacturing concerns into production and service cost centres. Production cost centres relate to those centres where production or manufacturing STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 9 Basics of Cost Accounting activities take place. Service cost centres are those, which are ancillary and render services to the production cost centres, so that manufacturing activities can take place. In a biscuit manufacturing company, making, baking and packing are production cost centres while personnel, purchase, stores, canteen, accounts are service cost centres.
The main purpose of cost centre is two fold :??? (i) Recovery of cost: Costs are collected, classified and accumulated in respect of a location, person or an item of equipment and then the costs are distributed over the products for recovery of incurred cost, and (ii) Cost control: Cost centres assist in making a person responsible for the control of expenditure incurred by the cost centre. Manager of each cost centre shall control costs incurred in his area of responsibility. The size of the cost centre depends on the activity and operation, and feasibility of cost control.
Sub-cost centres are created if the size of the cost centres become too big from control point of view. Cost Unit While cost centres assist in ascertaining costs by location, person, equipment, operation or process, cost unit is a unit of product, service or a combination of them in relation to which costs are ascertained or expressed. The selection of suitable cost unit depends upon several factors, such as, nature of business, process of information, requirements of costing system, etc. but usually relates to the natural unit of the product or service.
For example, in steel and cement industry, the cost unit is ‘tonne’, while in transportation services, the unit may be passenger-kilometre or tonne-km, etc. It may be noted that while the former is a single cost unit, the latter is a composite unit, i. e. a combination of two units. A few examples of cost units are given below :??? lndustry or product Automobile Biscuit Bread Breweries Bricks Cigarettes Chemical Coal, cement Cotton textile Gas Hospital Hotel Power and electricity Steel Transport Cost unit Number Kilogram Thousand loaves Barrel Thousand bricks Thousand cigarettes Litre, gallon, kilogram Tonne K. G. f yarn or metre of cloth Cubic foot or cubic metre Patient day Guest-day, guest room, etc. Kilowatt-hour Tonne Passenger kilometre, Tonne-kilometre STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 10 Cost and Management Accounting 1. 8 COST CLASSIFICATION Cost classification refers to the process of grouping costs according to their common characteristics, such as nature of expense, function, variability, controllability and normality. Cost classification can be done on the basis of time, their relation with the product and accounting period. Cost classification is also made for planning and control and decision making.
Thus, classification is essential for identifying costs with cost centres or cost units for the purpose of determination and control of cost : (a) By nature of expenses: Costs can be classified into material, labour and expenses as explained earlier. (b) By function: Costs are classified, as explained earlier, into production or manufacturing cost, administration cost, selling and distribution cost, research and development cost. Production cost begins with the process of supplying material labour and services and ends with primary packing of the finished product. Administration cost is the aggregate of the costs of formulating the policy, directing the organisation and controlling the operations of an undertaking, which is not related directly to production, selling, distribution, research and development activity or function. ??? Selling cost refers to the expenditure incurred in promoting sales and retaining customers. ??? Distribution cost begins with the process of making the packed product available for despatch and ends with making the reconditioned returned empty package available for reuse. Research and development cost relates to the costs of researching for new or improved products, new application of materials, or new or improved methods, processes, system or services, and also the cost of implementation of the decision including the commencement of commercial production of that product or by that process or method. ??? Pre-production cost refers to the part of development cost incurred in making trial production run preliminary to formal production, either in a new or a running factory. In a running factory, this cost often represents esearch and development cost also. Pre-production costs are normally considered as deferred revenue expenditure and are charged to the cost of future production. (c) By variability: Costs are classified into fixed, variable and semi-fixed / semi-variable costs according to their tendency to vary with the volume of output. ??? ??? ??? Fixed costs tend to remain unaffected by the variation or change in the volume of output, such as supervisory salary, rent, taxes, etc. Variable costs tend to vary directly with volume of output, such as direct material, direct labour and direct expense.
Semi-fixed/semi-variable cost is partly fixed and partly variable, such as telephone expense, electricity charges, etc. ??? STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 11 Basics of Cost Accounting (d) By controllability: Costs can be classified under controllable cost and uncontrollable cost. Controllable cost can be influenced by the action of a specified member of an undertaking. ??? Uncontrollable cost cannot be influenced by the action of a specified member of an undertaking. (e) By normality : Costs can be divided into normal cost and abnormal cost.
Normal cost refers to the cost, at a given level of output in the conditions in which that level of output is normally attained. ??? Abnormal cost is a cost which is not normally incurred at a given level of output in the conditions in which that level of output is normally attained. (f) On the basis of time : Costs, may be classified into historical or actual cost and predetermined or future cost. Historical cost relates to the usual method of determining actual cost of operation based on actual expenses incurred during the period.
Such evaluation of costs takes longer time, till the accounts are closed and finalised, and figures are ready for use in cost calculations. ??? Predetermined cost as the name signifies is prepared in advance before the actual operation starts on the basis of specifications and historical cost data of the earlier period and all factors affecting cost. Predetermined cost is the cost determined in advance and may be either estimated or standard. ??? Estimated cost is prepared before accepting an order for submitting price quotation. It is also used for comparing actual performance. Standard cost is scientifically predetermined cost of a product or service applicable during a specific period of immediate future under current or anticipated operating conditions. The method consists of setting standards for each elements of cost, comparing actual cost incurred with the standard cost, evaluating the variance from standard cost and finding reasons for such variance, so that remedial steps can be taken promptly to check inefficient performances. (9) In relation to the product : Costs may be classified into direct and indirect costs.
Direct costs are those which are incurred for a particular cost unit and can be conveniently linked with that cost unit. Direct costs are termed as product cost. ??? Indirect costs are those which are incurred for a number of cost units and also include costs which though incurred for a particular cost unit are not linked with the cost unit. Since such costs are incurred over a period and the benefit is mostly derived within the same period, they are called period costs. (h) Cost analysis for decision making: Here costs are classified under relevant costs (e. g. arginal cost, additional fixed cost, incremental cost, opportunity cost) and irrelevant costs (e. g. sunk cost, committed costs, etc. ) (For detail refer Cost Accounting Methods and Problems by B. K. Bhar Chapter 1 and Chapter 20 Para 20. 3) ??? ??? ??? ??? STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 12 Cost and Management Accounting 1. 9 METHODS OF COSTING Various methods of ascertaining costs are available to suit the business need. But the basic principles are the same in every method. The choice of a particular method of costing depends on the nature of business of the concern.
There are two basic methods of costing viz. ??? (a) Specific order or job costing (b) Continuous operation or process costing All other methods are either variation of job or process costing or are just techniques used for particular purpose under specific conditions. Brief description of each of the methods are as follows: Job Costing Job costing is the basic costing method applicable to those industries where the work consist of separate contracts, jobs, or batches, each of which is authorised by a specific order or contract.
The most important feature is that each job or order can be identified at each stage of production and therefore, costs which can be directly identified with a job or order is charged to that job or order. A share of indirect expenses is also charged to the same. Variation of job costing are contracts costing and batch costing. ??? Contract costing is the form of specific order costing, generally applicable where work is undertaken to customer’s special requirements and each order is of long duration, such as building construction, ship building, structurals for bridge, civil construction, etc. The work is usually done outside the factory. Batch costing is that form of specific order costing which applies where similar articles are manufactured in batches either for sale or for use within the undertaking. Costs are collected according to batch order number and total costs are divided by total numbers in a batch to arrive at unit cost of each job. The method is applicable in aircraft, toy making, printing industries, etc. Operation Costing ??? Process and Services Process costing method is applicable where goods or services result from a sequence of continuous or repetitive operations or processes and products are identical and cannot be segregated.
Costs are charged to processes and averaged over the units produced during the period. Examples are food processing, chemical, dairies, paints, flour, biscuit making, etc. Variations of process costing are found in single or output costing, operation costing, departmental costing as explained below: ??? Single or output costing is used when the production is uniform and identical and a single article is produced. The total production cost is divided by the number of units produced to get unit or output cost. Examples are mining, breweries, brick making, etc. Operation costing refers to the methods where each operation in each stage of production or process is separately costed. Thereafter, the cost of finished unit is determined. This is suitable to industries dealing with mass production of repetitive nature ??? for example, motor cars, cycles, toys, etc. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 13 Basics of Cost Accounting ??? Departmental costing refers to the method of ascertaining the cost of operating a department or cost centre. Total cost of each department is ascertained and divided by total units produced in that department to arrive at unit cost.
If one product passes through a number of departments for completion, cost of each department will be picked up and the total unit cost will be the aggregate of unit cost of the departments through which the product passes. Service or Operating Costing Operating costing is applicable to service organisation that do not make or sell tangible goods but render services. Examples are transportation companies, hotels, hospitals, schools, electric and gas generation and distribution, etc. Cost of providing and operating a service is ascertained and unit cost is found out by dividing total cost of units of services rendered.
Composite units, such as tonne-mile, passenger-kilometre, KWH, etc. are generally used. Composite or multiple costing: The manufacture of certain products involve a lot of complexities and therefore, any one of the basic methods of job or process costing cannot be used for collecting and presenting product cost. In fact, industries making complex products such as cycles, automobiles, aeroplanes, radios, etc. use combination of various costing methods and the methods are known as composite or multiple costing. 1. 10 TECHNIQUES OF COSTING
In each of the costing methods, various techniques may be used to ascertain cost, depending on the management requirement. These techniques may be grouped as follows : A. Absorption costing : It refers to the ascertainment of costs after they have been actually incurred. As per this system, fixed as well as variable costs are allotted to cost units and total overheads are absorbed by actual activity level. Absorption costing is termed as total costing, since total costs are ultimately allotted to cost units. It is also termed as historical or traditional costing.
However, since costs are ascertained after they have been incurred, and substantial time-gap exists between occurrence of expenditure and reporting off cost information, it does not help to exercise cost control. B. Marginal costing : It refers to a principle whereby variable costs are charged to cost units and the fixed costs attributable to the relevant period is written off in full against the contribution for that period. Contribution is the difference between sales and variable or marginal cost of sales. Marginal costing is also known as direct or variable costing.
It is a valuable aid to management in taking important policy decisions, such as product pricing, choosing product mix, decision to make or to buy, etc. C. Standard costing: It refers to the technique which uses standards for costs and revenues for the purpose of control through variance analysis. Standards are established for each cost element on a scientific basis for immediate future period, and actuals are compared against the standard. Variances from standards are analysed, reasons established and corrective action taken to stop recurrence of inefficient operation.
Thus, standard costing is extremely helpful for cost control. Standard costing is normally used along STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 14 Cost and Management Accounting with budgetary control, which refers to the establishment of budgets relating to responsibilities of executive to the requirements of a policy and the continuous comparison of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by individual action the objective of that policy or to provide a basis for its revision . Absorption costing system and marginal or direct costing system can be used in conjunction with standard costing system.
D. Differential costing: It is defined as a technique used in the preparation of adhoc information in which only costs and income differences between alternative courses of action are taken into consideration. It considers only the additional costs and additional revenues arising out of the decision regarding addition of a project. Similarly, incremental costing technique considers incremental costs and incremental revenue arising out of a decision to change the level of nature of activity. E. Uniform costing: It refers to the use by several undertakings of the same costing system i. e. he same basic methods, principles and techniques. This is not a distinct method of costing. The system is applied by a number of units of the same undertaking or several undertakings within the same industry with a view to promote operating efficiency by comparing inter-unit or interfirm performance data. Trade associations and multinational companies often use this system. 1. 11 SPECIFIC COST SYSTEMS Having discussed the basic methods and techniques of cost, let us look into the other specific types of cost systems developed on the principle of different cost for different purposes.
As the word “cost” can rarely stand alone, every prefix or suffix changes its connotation. Some of the frequently used terms not explained earlier are briefly mentioned as follows A. Opportunity cost : It is the value of a benefit sacrificed in favour of an alternative course of action. It is the measurable advantage foregone as a result of the rejection of best alternative uses of resources, whether of materials, labour or facilities. This cost does not involve any cash outlay and is computed only for the purpose of comparison in the context of managerial decisions.
The concept recognises that resources are scarce and have alternative uses. B. Imputed or Notional cost : It is a hypothetical cost taken into account in a particular situation to represent a benefit enjoyed by an entity in respect of which no actual expense is incurred. For example, interest on own capital, rent on own premises, etc. are not included in financial accounts, but for determining comparative cost may be included in costs. C. Out of Pocket cost : It is just the opposite of imputed cost. This is that portion of cost which represents actual cash outlay.
Out-of-pocket cost is very much relevant in price fixation during trade depression or when a make or buy decision is to be made. D. Sunk cost : It represents historical costs, incurred in the past and is irrevocable in a given situation. Hence, a sunk cost is not relevant to current decision making. Generally the book value of an asset is treated as sunk cost, while considering the replacement of the asset. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 15 Basics of Cost Accounting E. Relevant cost : Costs that are affected by decisions are relevant costs.
These are expected future costs, that will differ between alternatives. Future variable costs generally become relevant for decision making, while fixed costs may be irrelevant, if they do not change in total. In the same way if an item of future cost remains same for two or more alternatives, it becomes irrelevant for the decision making. F. Replacement cost : It is the current market cost of replacing an asset or a material. G. Policy cost : Costs incurred as a result of particular policy decision are policy costs.
For example, ownership of assets will create a charge for depreciation. Hiring a new office will create a charge for rent. Such depreciation and rent will be policy costs. Policy costs are fixed or period costs. H. Discretionary cost : Discretionary costs are those which arise from yearly budget appropriation and reflect management policy, having no direct input output relationship between their costs and activity volume. Example are training expenses, advertisement, Employee welfare expense. This is also termed as managed or programmed cost.
I . Engineered cost : It refers to any cost that has an explicit and specified physical relationship with the selected measure of activity. Such a relationship is established either through engineering analysis or analysis of past data. Examples are direct material, direct labour. J. Avoidable cost : Costs that are specifically incurred of an activity or sector of a business and can be identified with the activity and such costs would be avoided, if the activity or the sector of the business does not exist are avoidable costs.
For example, the cost of a machine hired specially to make a particular product will be avoided by discontinuing production of that product, and therefore, is an avoidable cost. K. Unavoidable cost : Common costs apportioned to a particular activity or a segment of a business are usually unavoidable cost, because total common costs cannot be avoided or even reduced even if that activity or sector does not exist. For example, rent of factory premises apportioned to various activities is unavoidable cost for a particular activity, say machine shop, because a decision to discontinue the machine shop will not help reducing rent of the factory.
L. Common cost : These are costs which are incurred collectively for a number of cost centres and are required to be suitably apportioned for determining the cost of individual cost centres. For example, rent of the factory premises may be apportioned over production and service cost centres on the basis of area. M. Traceable cost : This is cost which is easily identifiable with a department process or product. This is just the opposite of common cost. N. Joint cost : Joint cost is the cost incurred up to the split off point between individual joint products arising out of a production process.
When joint products and/ or by products are processed from the same material and common conversion costs are incurred for these products, the main problem is to apportion joint costs incurred up to the split off point to joint products. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 16 Cost and Management Accounting O. Step cost : Step costs are those costs which increase in steps. These costs remain constant over small ranges of output but the cost increases by discrete amounts as activity moves from one range to the next.
For example, supervisory expenses, light and heating, etc. will increase when a second shift is started to cope up with additional orders. 1. 12 COST DEPARTMENT AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS In the organisation chart, the cost department occupies a very important position. The cost department is responsible (a) for keeping records connected with material, labour and expenses, (b) for analysing all costs of manufacturing, marketing and administration, and (c) for issuing control reports and data for decision making to the executives, department heads, section heads and foremen.
When management is provided with useful reports, they assist in controlling and improving cost and operations. Such information data are, again, used for making new decisions. The effectiveness of the control of cost depends upon proper communication through control reports from the cost accountant to the various levels of operating management. Accounting and control reports are directed to these levels of management, i. e. top management, middle management and lower level or shop floor level of management. Each management level requires data for deciding and solving various problems.
The cost accountant must devise a cost system into which data are marshalled to fit the numerous problems confronting management. Therefore, the chart of accounts, which is the accountant’s means of classifying costs and expenses must be closely associated with the organisation chart showing principal management position with the line of delegation of authority, responsibility and accountability. Thus, an organisation chart is essential to the development of a cost system. Analysis of costs and preparation of reports are greatly facilitated by proper division of functions generally listed under cost department.
Proper coordination is also necessary with other functions closely allied with cost accounting, such as budget and data processing. These functions should come under the supervision of the finance chief unless they report to the chief of operation directly for other reasons. The cost department is intimately connected with the other departments in the organisation. Their relationship can be briefly established as follows :??? A. Manufacturing departments control the scheduling, manufacturing and inspection of each job or processed products to their finished stage in terms of efficiency norms established.
Costs incurred at each stage are measured and compared with the norms. B. Production planning, research and design department involve cost department for cost estimates needed for each type of material, labour and machine process before a decision can be reached in accepting or rejecting a design. C. Personnel department is interested to maintaining employee cost up-to-date. The wage rate and methods of remuneration agreed with the employees form the basis for computing payroll. Cost department provides all data. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. CIVIL) EXAMINATION 17 Basics of Cost Accounting D. Marketing department needs a good product at a competitive price. While cost cannot determine price, it can influence fixation of price. Besides, accurate cost data help sales manager distinguish profitable with nonprofitable products and compare cost of marketing against sales volume. E. Public relation department establishes good relations with the public in general and customers, creditors, shareholders, and employees in particular. The cost department provides information concerning price, cost, etc. F.
Legal department finds cost department helpful in keeping many affairs of the company in conformity with the law, specially excise, customs, sales tax and other legislation regarding maintenance of accounts and cost records. G. The finance department relies on the cost department for accounting, valuation of inventory, cash flow statements, C. A. S. data for banks, etc. Where finance department is composed of general accounting and cost accounting, besides taxation and funds management departments, it is usual to consider cost accounting department providing unit cost of goods manufactured and sold to general accounting department.
The organisation chart of a finance department usually takes the following form. Director or Vice President finance General Manager ??? Finance and Accounting General Manager ??? Management Accounting Manager General Accounts Manager Banking & Funds Manager Taxation Manager Cost Accounts Manager Budget & Reporting Manager EDP 1. 13 INSTALLATION OF COSTING SYSTEM Having established the need for a cost department in an organisation, let us find out the method of installation of a cost system. Obviously, it will depend on the objectives of costing, the nature of business and information flow system.
The system will be simple, if object is simple like only price fixing. It aims at controlling cost and measuring efficiency of operations, the requirements will be different. If it is installed as per legal requirement, then it must satisfy the legal needs. The nature of the business will again indicate the degree of complexity of the system. The information flow will depend on the levels of management, who will receive information and the periodicity of reporting required. In most industries products, cost accounting record rules as prescribed by the Government are to be maintained.
In such cases care must be taken so that prescribed proforma can be filled in from the cost records/books of accounts so maintained. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 18 Cost and Management Accounting It is evident that installing a good cost system is quite a challenging task. The three fundamental requirements are as follows :??? (i) Organisation chart ??? showing the lines of authority and delegation of responsibility. (ii) Departmentalisation ??? dividing the organisation into production and service cost centres, to which expenses are charged. iii) Chart of accounts ??? showing control accounts for the elements of cost as well as expense items, so as to enable collection and classification of costs both expensewise and cost centrewise. The system requires total involvement by all the beneficiaries i. e. sales, production, engineering, purchase, personnel, quality control departments. The success of the system will finally depend on the top management which must extend full support to the system. In actual handling of the installation work, the following technical aspects are to be carefully considered. ??? to study the existing organisation chart and layout of the factory. to follow the production process right from the production planning, purchase and storage of materials, issues of materials to production, production process from initial till primary and secondary packing and loading on transport for distribution. ??? to examine documents and reports prepared and issued by each department, including records maintained for returns furnished with the Government and outsiders. ??? to interact with various levels of management to find out their expectations of the system. Finally, the system has to be developed keeping the following factors in view : ??? The system should be simple and easy to operate.
Complexity should be avoided. ??? The system should give accurate, timely and adequate information. ??? The system should be elastic and capable of adopting to changed situation. ??? The system should be cost-effective. It should yield a much higher return on capital invested in installing and running the department. NOTE: Students are advised to study up to this portion 3 times, and then attempt Test Questions. Also refer Chapter 1 of Cost Accounting Methods and Problems by B. K. Bhar. ?? SPECIMEN QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS ??? 1 Question 1: A company manufactures and retails clothing.
You are required to group the costs which are listed below and numbered 1 to 20 into the following classifications (each cost is intended to belong to only one classification). STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 19 Basics of Cost Accounting (i)Direct materials, (ii) Direct labour, (iii) Direct expenses, (iv) Indirect production overhead, (v) Research and development costs, (vi) Selling and distribution costs, (vii) Administration costs, (viii) Finance costs 1. Lubricant for sewing machines 2. Floppy disks for general office computer 3. Maintenance contract for general office photocopying machine 4.
Telephone rental plus metered calls 5. Interest on bank overdraft 6. Performing rights society charge for music broadcast throughout the factory 7. Market research undertaken prior to a new product launch 8. Wages of security guards for factory. 9. Carriage on purchases of basic raw material. 10. Royalty payable on number of units of product XY produced. 11. Road fund licences for delivery vehicles 12. Parcels sent to customers. 13. Cost of advertising products on television 14. Audit fees 15 Chief accountant’s salary 16. Wages of operatives in the cutting department 17. Cost of painting advertising slogans on delivery vans 18.
Wages of storekeepers in materials store 19. Wages of fork lift truck drivers who handle raw materials 20. Developing a new product in the laboratory Answer : (i) Direct materials 9 (ii) Direct labour 16 (iii) Direct expenses 10 (iv) Indirect production overhead 1,6,8,18,19 (v) Research and development costs 20 (vi) Selling and distribution costs 7, 11, 12, 13, 17 (vii) Administration costs 2, 3, 4, 14, 15 (viii) Finance costs 5 Question 2 : “Cost accounting provides financial statements for managers within the business whereas financial accounting is intended for external users. Comment on this statement, with particular reference to the different information needs of managers and of shareholders of large public limited companies. Answer : In relation to most modern businesses the statement is slightly flawed in the sort that a single integrated system of accounting is used to provide information both for management purposes and for external parties. The real contrast is in the nature of the information that is reported to each of these groups. Management have the responsibility of planning and controlling the resources of a business. To do this they need detailed information about the operations of
STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 20 Cost and Management Accounting the business to form a basis for managerial action and decision making. The concern of a ‘cost’ accountant is therefore to present information in whatever form best enables managers to perform their function. Shareholders are interested primarily in whether their investment in the company is secure, and also (depending upon their needs) whether it is likely to provide the required income in the form of dividends and/or show an acceptable level of growth in the future (and hence an increasing share price).
Financial accounting is intended to satisfy each of these needs and is governed by stringent standards and legal requirements to ensure that shareholders are given adequate information to make judgements on these matters. Shareholders are frequently interested in comparing current results with information about previous years and hence consistency from year to year is an important consideration. Managers are concerned with the future and so are interested in reviewing current results and forecast information. Shareholders also need to be able to compare the results with those of other ompanies, not least because of a desire to diversify their investments. They therefore need information in a standard form which facilitates comparison of widely different types of companies, for example a ‘safe bet’, like Marks and Spencer, with a high risk prospect, like a newly established information technology business. Managers, on the other hand, would be more interested in comparing the results of organisations that operated in the same line of business and would ideally like far more detailed operational information than is available from financial accounts. I. TEST YOURSELF Objective Type Questions 1. Which of the following statements are true? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) Cost accounting can be used only in manufacturing organisation. Financial accounting is concerned with external reporting. Cost accounting is a branch of financial accounting. Cost accounting is not necessary for a non-profit making service organisation. Prosperous and profit making concerns do not need costing system. Costing techniques refer to those used for analysis and interpretation of cost data. All costs are controllable.
Direct costs are those which are identified with a particular cost centre or cost unit. Notional costs are not included for ascertaining costs. Prime cost is the total of direct material, direct labour and production expenses. Fixed costs per unit remains fixed. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 21 Basics of Cost Accounting (l) Multiple costing means a combination of two or more methods. (m) Transactions of purely financial nature are excluded from cost accounts. (n) Contribution margin is the difference between sales and cost of sales. . Fill in the blanks : with revenues. One of the function of cost accounting is proper matching of . The emphasis of cost accounting is on accounting refers to the information system which provides information to managers to assist them in fulfilling organisation objectives. costing.. (d) Basic methods of costing are job costing and costing and marginal costing. (e) Basic principles of costing are . (f) Conversion cost plus direct material is cost. and cost. (g) Cost of sales is factory cost plus costs are charged directly to costing profit and loss account. h) & . (i) On the basis of behaviour of cost, overheads are classified into costs are hypothetical or notional cost. (j) cost. (k) The ascertainment of costs after they have been incurred is known as is the difference between sales and variable cost of sales. (l) 3. Pick up which ones are cost centre and which ones are cost unit :??? (a) (b) (c) (a) (d) (g) Passenger???km Tonne Delivery Van (b) Canteen (e) Lathe (h) Litre. (c) (f) Machine shop Salesman 4. Given below are three lists of industries, costing methods, and cost unit.
Mention the method of costing and cost units applicable against each of the industries :??? Industry Method Cost unit A. Job a) Piece (i) Advertising (ii) Building B. Process b) Kilogramme (iii) Biscuit C. Operating c) Tonne (iv) Cycle D. Multiple d) Tonne-kilometre (v) Hospital E. Contract e) Bed-week (vi) Road transport F. Output f) Each Job (vii) Cigarette g) Each contract (viii) Motor car (ix) Coal 5. Select the most suitable answer in each of the following multiple choice questions :??? (A) The main purpose of cost accounting is to (a) Maximise profits. b) Provide information to management for decision making. (c) Help in fixing selling price. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 22 Cost and Management Accounting (B) (C) (D) (E) Direct material is a (a) Fixed cost (b) Variable cost (c) Semi-variable cost. Conversion cost is total of (a) Direct material and direct wages. (b) Direct material, direct wages and production overheads. (c) Direct wages and production overheads. A cost which does not involve cash outlay is Called (a) Historical cost (b) Imputed cost and (c) Out of pocket cost.
Committed fixed costs are those which (a) Arise from yearly budget appropriations. (b) Are incurred because management can afford. (c) Arise from additional capacity. II. Descriptive Questions 1. “Cost accounting is an essential tool of management”. Give your comments on the statement. 2. What are the basic objectives of cost accounting ? In which way it differs from financial accounting ? 3. Can a functional relationship be established between cost accounting and management accounting ? State some of the objectives of management accounting ? 4.
What are the functions and characteristics of a good costing system ? 5. Write notes on the following methods, indicating the type of organisation where the same are applicable :??? (a) Output costing, (b) Multiple costing (c) Operating costing, and (d) Process costing. 6. Distinguish between absorption costing and marginal costing system. Can standard cost be applicable to either of the systems ? 7. You have joined as a cost accountant in an industry where there is no costing system. Discuss the various steps you will take to install the system. . What is a cost centre ? Explain the types of cost centres and the purpose they serve ? 9. “Overheads in a manufacturing concern are usually classified by functions”. Define each major function. 10. Trace the evolution of cost accounting in India, and the role of the Government of India thereof. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 23 PRIME COST 2. 0 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 ?? ?? 3. 0 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9 3. 10 3. 11 4. 0 ?? ??
Materials Cost Management Material Cost Control Storing Procedures Stores Receipt and Inspection Stores Issue, Transfer and Return Stock Control Material Control Pricing Issues of Material Pricing of Returns, Transfers, Shortage and Excess Materials Valuation of Closing Stock for Balance Sheet Classification, Coding and Computerised Material Accounting Specimen Questions with Answers Test Yourself Labour Cost Introduction Manpower Planning, Recruitment and Training Attendance and Time Recording Time Booking Remuneration Methods and Incentive schemes Basic Principles of Remuneration Measurement of Labour Efficiency and Productivity Payroll Procedure Labour analysis and Accounting Idle Time and Overtime Labour Turnover Direct Expenses Specimen Questions with Answers Test Yourself 24 25 2. 8 31 33 39 47 49 60 61 61 62 70 74 74 75 76 77 79 92 92 96 98 101 104 108 109 120 STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) EXAMINATION 24 Cost and Management Accounting 2. 0 MATERIALS COST MANAGEMENT Materials management is a function responsible for coordination of planning, sourcing, purchasing, moving, storing and controlling materials in an optimum manner so as to provide predetermined services to the customer at a minimum cost.
It is therefore desirable that every materials manager should try to apply proper materials planning, purchasing, handling, storing materials so as to achieve the desired objective of minimising materials procurement and stock holding costs. Recently, the integrated materials management concept has gained greater acceptance. This has necessitated professional development managers so that they can fulfil the requirements of an integrated materials management function which demands an ability to bring together conflicting and yet interrelated functions, viz. materials planning, purchasing, receiving and inspection, stores, inventory control, scrap and surplus disposal. The economic pressures in the form of inflation and credit squeeze have placed exacting demands on the materials manager.
In a integrated set up, the materials manager who is responsible for all such interrelated function, is in a position to exercise control and coordinate with an overview that ensures proper balance of the conflicting objectives of the aforesaid individual functions. The important advantages of integrated materials management are better accountability, better performance, better growth and adaptability to electronic data processing. Material cost to be effective involves the cooperation of various departments viz: purchasing department, receiving and inspection department, stores, production and stock control department. Material Cost Having discussed about the basic principles, methods and objectives of cost accounting, we now turn to study the details of each aspect of costing. To start with, each element of cost will be taken up separately.
Let us begin with the first element of cost that is material??? Material is the most significant element of cost and accounts for anywhere between 40% to 70% of the total cost of production. Cost control activities are, therefore, directed mostly towards selection, purchase, storage and consumption of material. The following are the salient features of material cost control : (a) The quality and specification of materials shall commensurate with the requirements of the product, so that neither too expensive or superior nor cheap or inferior material shall be selected for use in product. (b) . The purchasing shall aim at minimum price to suppliers and timely procurement and shall avoid urgent purchases at higher cost. c) Storage of materials shall be such that there will be neither overstocking, and thereby blocking Capital, nor running out of stock and creating interruption in production process. (d) Wastage and losses shall be avoided at every stage of operation i. e. from storing till usage in production. STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY ICWAI FOR J. A. O. (CIVIL) E