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About 62-90 percent of the assessment is based on colors alone. So, prudent use of colors can contribute not only to differentiating products from competitors, but also to influencing moods and feelings – positively or negatively – and therefore, to attitude towards certain products. Given that our moods and feelings are unstable and that colors play roles in forming attitude, it is important that managers understand the importance of colors in marketing. The study is designed to contribute to the debate.
Design/methodology/approach – This article reviews the literature relating to color psychology in the context of marketing, highlights inconsistencies and controversies surrounding the color psychology, and, examines the impact of colors on marketing. Findings – Findings of the study are that managers can use colors to increase or decrease appetite, enhance mood, calm down customers, and, reduce perception of waiting time, among others. Research limitations/implications – The direction for future research and limitations of the duty are presented.
Originality/value – Reviews the literature relating to color psychology in the context of marketing. Keywords Color, Light, Marketing information Paper type Research paper Background to color and light Color is light carried on wavelengths absorbed by the eyes that the brain converts into colors that we see. Light can be decomposed into a spectrum of six distinct colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. The red has the longest wavelength whereas the violet the shortest. An object appearing yellow absorbs all of the colors in the spectrum except the yellow light.
This unabsorbed light is reflected back from the object into the eyes from where it travels to the brain where it is interpreted as yellow. The eyes are comprised of cones and rods that allow us to see color and light, respectively. There are three types of cones: type I is associated with blue, type II with green, and, type Ill with red (Harrington and Mackey, 1993). Other colors are combination of these three colors. Psychologists have classified colors as warm (red and yellow) and cool (blue and green) colors.
However, the distinction between warm and cool colors is relative; for example, when red and yellow are aired together, yellow is considered warmer than red. White, black, and gray are considered neutral colors. Because color experiences vary from individual to individual, it is not possible to know how another person experiences color. One person’s experience of a shade of red can be perceived differently from another person. Rods detect light that is necessary for colors to exist. Light affects the perception of colors. Whether it is the color of walls in a restaurant or retail stores or merely the color Volvo. 44 NO. 6, 2006 up. 83-789 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0025-1747 DOI 10. 1108/00251740610673332 4,6 784 of packaging on a product, it is usually electrical lighting that allows colors to be seen. Electrical lighting has two major forms: incandescent and fluorescent lightings. Incandescent lightings enhance the warm colors while giving a poor appearance to cool colors. Halogen is a special form of incandescent lighting. Fluorescent lightings account for approximately 67 percent of lightings used worldwide (Vetch, 2001), but it lacks the warm colors of the spectrum. Although, it enhances blue and green, it makes red, orange, and yellow appear dull.
However, a special type of fluorescent sighting called “full-spectrum” enhances all the colors of the spectrum (Vetch, 2001). Proponents of the use of full-spectrum fluorescent lighting believe that it contributes to developing human cognitive abilities. Studies have attempted to link lightings with memory, mood and cognitive abilities and found inconsistent results (Knees, 2001 ; Vetch, 2001). Regardless of lightings’ direct effect on cognitive abilities, it contributes to determining color appearance. Color controversy Scientific findings on color theory appear to be as contentious as the research on lightings effects.
Conventional psychologists dismiss any role of color in influencing human personality, yet psychiatrists use color tests in conjunction with other tests to determine personality. While physiological responses to colors are part of the human experience, the evidence linking specific colors to specific responses is inconclusive (Kaiser, 1984). Colors and health Colors have been linked to health for centuries. Ancient Egyptian doctors bathed patients in colors of light to heal ailments. This trend has re-emerged as a branch of new age medicine, promoting the healing abilities of colors.
It is believed that red energize the liver, scarlet increases blood pressure, purple lowers blood pressure, orange strengthens lungs and increases calcium metabolism, green activates sympathetic nervous system, and, yellow energize the alimentary tract. Kiddo (2000) suggested that blue stimulated the sympathetic nervous system the most and the red and green the least. This system is responsible for heartbeat, blood pressure and perspiration. These findings appear to contradict the generally accepted influences of colors on body, e. G. The red is associated with increasing metabolic state, and the blue with calmness and relaxation.
Colors and culture Color is related to culture and religion. In a cross-cultural study, Wiggeries and Van deer Else (1988) found that blue was the most preferred color in general across cultures. Orange is the most sacred color in Hindu religion in India, but the Needed in Zambia do not even acknowledge orange as a color (Tektronix, 1988). Muslims view green as a sacred color. For Cells, green was also sacred enough to be included in wedding ceremonies until the Christian church introduced the white color. In Intuit communities, white is so important that it has 17 words to describe it, each with different meaning.
Red and white is a combination used for ritual decorations in Melanesia and for representing the Sacred Heart of the Catholic Church in Mexico (Tektronix, 1988). And, black always had a negative connotation associated with it, dating back to 2300 BC . Colors and emotions Colors affect different people in different ways. Cambial et al. (1978) tested association between colors and emotions, and designated yellow, orange, and blue as happy colors, and red, black and brown as sad colors. These emotions (happy vs. sad) were similar across age groups (second and third grade) and had the same types of instilled emotions about specific colors.
Kettle (1973) indicated that atmospherics such as noises, sizes, shapes, scents and colors could help create attention, convey messages, and create feelings that might increase purchase probability. The effects of such atmospherics have been demonstrated to influence emotional responses and behavioral intentions (Albert and Albert, 1986). Although, color is related to feelings about retail environment (Belize et al. , 1983), it also affects distraction (Gerard, 1957) and influences anxiety Jacobs and Sues, 1975). Colors and gender There are differences in the perception of colors between genders.
Shook (2002) found that men were more tolerant of gray, white or black than women, and that women reacted to the combinations of red and blue more frequently, and got confused and distracted more than men. It was also found that the combination of red and blue was the most preferred color by adults. These results suggest that there are gender differences in the perception of color. True, the subject’s impressions of color seemed to be more subtle and effected not Just by the coolness or warmness of the color palette, but also by the calibration of value, chromo, and contrast used in the interiors (Shook, 2002).
Application of color in marketing Colors appear to be contentious. The absence of conclusive scientific results relating to color has given rise to several speculations. There have been some advances in the research, although it came from companies in the color consultation industry. Although their nature of experiments is not scientific, the results seem to be in general agreement among marketers. Following are some of the applications in marketing. Colors and restaurants The red color stimulates appetite because of its effect on our metabolism, making red a popular color choice among fast-food restaurants.
The yellow color is also employed by fast-food moguls to hijack customers’ interests – they gain customers’ attention, increase their appetite, and encourage them to eat. This is the best way for fast-food companies to generate sales. By contrast, formal restaurants use blue color to calm and relax their customers. This comforting state is expected to increase the likelihood of the customers lingering longer. Longer stays may correspond to larger meals, more wine, coffee, or desserts, and; therefore, more sales. This is an important strategy for formal restaurants to increase their sales.
Although blue is linked to a alma state (Kiddo, 2000), its excessive use can be an appetite suppressant! Indeed, such an outcome is not desirable by formal restaurants. However, a particular type of restaurant could, to some extent, benefit from the appetite suppressant strategy – all- you-can-eat style restaurants that offer buffet at a flat rate. In such an instance, using the color clue could save the restaurant owner money if patrons did not eat as much; instead of generating increased sales, the owner benefits from lowered costs. The result is the same – 785 increasing the bottom line.
However, this strategy to be effective, other aspects of the assistant must be appealing, e. G. Good service, food quality, surrounding, etc. 786 Colors and waiting time Colors influence the perception of the passage of time. Time seems to pass slowly and objects seem larger and heavier under a red light. On the contrary, time seems to pass quite quickly and objects seem smaller and lighter under blue light. Casinos take advantage of this principle – they use red color lighting to get their customers excited while making them feel that they are not wasting a lot of time in the casino.
Colors and brands Colors evoke brands. Whether it is Whininess’s distinct green label, Coca-cola’s red, Shell’s yellow, or Caduceus purple, all have different color values to different consumers. The high importance placed on color is an acknowledgment of manufacturers’ understanding that color has strong emotional loading, able to prompt a swifter response to packaging than either the written work or imagery (Tussle, 2000). Holograms and metallic colored packaging on Colgate toothpastes entice consumers to choose their toothpaste over Proctor & Gambler’s.
Colors and trend With the passage of time, people change preferences for colors. Like fashion pundits predict fashion trends, color consultants predict and set color trends by taking into account the idiosyncrasies of various segments of the population. They develop shorthand long-term color forecasts so marketing managers could match the trend and adjust color of their products’ packaging, maximizing the likelihood that their products will be preferred based on the color of the product, everything being equal.
Indeed, manufacturers may benefit from the prediction of color experts when choosing a color for their products’ packaging. Although the prediction is more an art than a science, pallet pundits have a strong influence on the emerging popular preferences for colors. Conclusion Colors are controversial. Some feel that human responses to colors are stable, therefore applicable to everyone, whereas others disagree, asserting that responses and preferences to colors vary across culture, gender, and, age, among others.
What can be demonstrated in meaningful scientific studies can be contradicted by the unverifiable research conducted by industry color consultants. So, the implication for marketing managers is that they should be aware of the perceived importance of colors and their interpretation in a particular geographic area. Packaging and store wall colors can drastically affect their sales. Managers have an option of exploiting these differences to their advantage while laying out design for their stores. Depending upon their target audience (e. G. Gender-specific stores, kids store, etc. , they should choose colors for products or for interior decoration of their stores. Research relating to choice of colors should be conducted and concluded before launching a product, as the wrong color choice can have negative impact on the image of the product and the company. Global managers need to recognize that the different meanings associated with specific colors may facilitate multi-segment marketing opportunities. In addition, managers, who promote the country-of-origin of their product, may benefit by using the association of particulars for specific countries, e. G.
Chinese and French manufacturers can use red and purple colors on their products, respectively. It appears that colors lend credence to the generally accepted confidence in the psychological marketing of items. Dining out is becoming more a means of social gathering than eating (Kalmia, 2001). With more and more people frequenting restaurants and the subsequent rise in the number of restaurants to cater for this increased demand, owners are not only cooking for ways to differentiate their restaurant from the crowd, but also to capitalize on the use of colors to increase profitability.
Prudent use of colors in restaurateurs on the walls or carpets should increase food sales. Although, no direct evidence that specific restaurants using specific colors increased sales was documented, it might be generalized that depending on the type of restaurant (fast-food vs. formal dining), careful color choice can influence customers’ patronage to the restaurants. Red and yellow attract attention and stimulate the appetite while blue and green calm customers and encourage leisurely dinning. In addition, buffet-style restaurants may wish to rely on blue because it may act as appetite suppressant.
It is expected that shrinking territorial barriers and advances in communications (the internet) should facilitate homogeneities of use of colors across the globe; however, the extent to which the cultural or geographic color standard will be universally adopted depends on the new generation of people. With the accessibility and the desirability of American entertainment (television) across the globe, it appears that the North American preferences and associations of color will prevail. The colors are expected to make an impact in the first decade of the twenty-first century, with the strong emphasis on the blue color.
An array of neutral colors (gray, taupe and pale brown) should accompany blue. In addition, soft pale colors like aqua, which represents serenity and relaxation, should dominate. Indeed, color can be an important, controllable marketing variable for managing image standardization because a product’s color can function not only as an immediate identifier of its brand but also its quality and price, e. G. In Hong Kong, a golden can of soup signifies high quality, hill black on white labeling generally conveys a generic or inferior quality. 87 Future research direction Future research should test the impact of colors (cool vs. warm) and light (dim vs. bright) on sales. Combining the concepts of color with light, we propose a typology of four conditions that indicates a variety of industries under certain combinations. This typology can be tested empirically by using the median split method and comparing the means through the analysis of variance (NOVA) technique (Figure 1). Figure 1. The analysis of variance 788 Limitations In this study, we assumed that everybody could see colors.