Words: 4731
The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines it as the “competitive or opposing action of incompatibles: antagonistic state or action (as of divergent ideas, interests, or persons). ” Conflict, thus, is one form of social interaction that involves at least tuft parties who disagree. The two parties argue with each other and dispute issues they both care about. Conflicts occur benzene persons, organizations, communal groups, and states, reflecting relationship within a family, a community, and an international systems.
Conflict resolution aims to end conflicts before they start or lead to physical fighting. Conflict resolution usually involves two or more groups with opposing views regarding specific issues, and another group or individual who is considered to be neutral in their opinion on the subject. This last bit though is quite often not entirely demanded if the “outside” group is well respected by all opposing parties. Resolution methods can include conciliation, mediation, negotiation, arbitration or litigation.
A resolution method which is direct between the parties with opposing views is negotiation. Negotiation can be the ;traditional’ model of hard bargaining where the interests of a group far outweigh the working relationships concerned. The ‘principled’ negotiation model is here both the interests and the working relationships concerned are viewed as important. It may be possible to avoid conflict without actually resolving the underlying dispute, by getting the parties to recognize that they disagree but that no further action needs to be taken at that time.
In a few cases, such as in a democracy, it may even be desirable that they disagree, thus exposing the issues to others who need to consider it for themselves: in this case the parties might agree or disagree. One of the most challenging and difficult aspects of organizational management is to get individuals and groups to understand ND voluntarily pursue organizational objectives. The difficulty in achieving such objectives could result in conflict in the organizations.
All of us have experienced conflict in some forms, yet we probably tail to recognize the varieties in organizations, Recently, conflict is seen as inevitable in organizations and oftentimes necessary to ensure high performance. The tact that conflict can be harmful in some instances is not denied but it is worthy to note that some for-NSA of conflict can be useful in achieving desired goals, It is however important for managers to foster effective communications as it is a major cause of conflicts n organizations.
This however means that the improvement of quality of working life for employees must be seriously considered in order to improve the cohesiveness in organizations. The quality Of working life is determined by the degree to which the work environment provides opportunities for employees to satisfy higher level needs such as respect, attention, recognition, belongingness and achievement. When an employee does not feel that he is attaining any of the above, he may feel cheated on and this can result in conflict and eventually affect his level of contribution to productivity.
Employees, customers and managers need to exchange information about goals, expectation, business relations within and outside the company to ensure satisfactory performance for efficient and effective running of the organization. Loss of customers, prestige and business to the tune of millions of cedes, in the market are too often a result of poor and inappropriate handling of conflict issues that emerges in organizations. Of the many organizations involved in conflict resolution, the UN is one of the foremost.
Ralph Bunched, as depicted in the film “Ralph Bunched: An American Odyssey”, leveled in and worked very successfully at resolving international conflicts. The film serves as a fine introduction to conflict resolution in general and to the efforts of many people and organizations to find effective ways to reduce tension and help people live together in peace and harmony. In the Minds of Men (1979), we described three principles, attendant sub principles and rules for making, keeping and fostering peace.
They are based on or consistent with the theory, analyses, and conclusions of the previous volumes and are meant to be general principles of conflict resolution for all levels and types of social relationships. They are particularly relevant and important for dealing with potential or actual violent conflict over the national or international status quo. Here we need only to summarize the major ideas involved in these principles, keeping in mind the aim to make incremental reforms toward a just peace possible. 1. : BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE OF COCOA RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF GHANA (CRAIG) History The Institute was established in June 1938 at Taft as the Central Cocoa Research Station of the Department of Agriculture of the Gold Coast. It was to investigate problems of pests and diseases, which had considerably reduced coca production in the Eastern Region. The Station owes its establishment to the visit to West Africa in November, 1935 of Sir Frank Stockades, the then Agricultural Advisor to the Secretary of State tort the Colonies.
Sir Frank Stockades recommended the establishment of a research station, which should determine the relative magnitude to the factors to production and device means by which the yield on existing farms might be maintained even if the rehabilitation of abandoned areas was not possible. Based on the recommendation, the British Colonial government made funds available to meet the cost of establishing he research station.
In 1944, the government of the Gold Coast (now Ghana), Nigeria, Sierra Leone and the United Kingdom set up the West African Cocoa Research Institute (WACKIER), with its headquarters at Taft. A sub-station was established at Moor Plantation in Abandon in 1953. After the attainment of independence by Ghana and Nigeria, the inter-territorial basis of the Institute came to an end in October 1962 and WACKIER was accordingly dissolved. The Government of Ghana took over the station at Taft and named it the Cocoa Research Institute Of Ghana (CRAIG)_ CRAIG, since 1984 has been a division Of Ghana Cocoa Board.
Mandate At its inception in June 1938, the Taft Central Cocoa Research Station was assigned clear goals within the Gold Coast Department of Agriculture to investigate the pest and disease problems of cocoa in order to maintain production in the Eastern Region. In 1944 when the Research Station was up- graded to WACKIER, the objectives were widened to include the disease and pest problems of cocoa in West Africa and also to investigate soil fertility and agricultural practices with a view to increasing yield.
Since 1966 CRAIG research mandate has been further widened to include coffee, kola, Sheehan and more gently cashew. CRAIG also conducts research into the development to by- products of cocoa and the other mandated crops with the aim of diversifying utilization and to generate additional income for farmers. Resources CRAIG has 33 well-trained professionals in various scientific disciplines and a number of technical staff. Accommodation for professional and technical staff is provided on the institute??s estates, served faith own water supply and a health clinic operated by the Cocoa Clinic.
Other resources are: Laboratories, a library, records and a research tradition Of over sixty years. There are three sub-stations located at: Buns for Cocoa, kola and coffee, Bole for Sheehan, Cobol Plantation farms transferred to CRAIG to form part Of the New Products Development unit. The farms provide raw materials (beans, sweating and fresh cocoa pods) for by-products research and development. Management/Committee CRAIG has a Management Committee which is appointed by the Government and which supports CRAIG Management with policy formulation and development.
It has appointed a number of sub-committees such as Research policy development and Promotion Committee to review Assessor’s reports for the rumination of Research Officers who apply for promotion, Administration An Executive Director who is assisted by two Deputy Executive Directors in charge of Cocoa and Coffee heads the institute. There are five scientific Divisions and two Units. The Divisions are AgronomySoil Science, Entomology, PhysiologyBiochemistry, PlantBreeding, Plant Pathology, the units are Social Science and Statistics and New Products Development.
The Accounts, General Administration, plantation Management, General Services and Scientific Information Divisions provide supporting services. Research Officers head the here sub-stations at Buns and Foss in the Eastern Region and Bole in the Northern Region. The heads of the substations report to the Executive Director. Plantation Managers head the three Cocoa Plantations located at Want (Western Region), Workers (Central Region) and MbabaneAssurances (ShantyBoron Oaf Regions). Research Research is organized on the basis of a multi-disciplinary thrust system.
The thrusts are: Cocoa establishment, Cocoa management, Cocoa improvement, Cocoa insects management, Cocoa swollen shoot virus, Cocoa fungal diseases and New Products Development. The Other crops are also organized on the thrust system. Each thrust has a leader who organizes the meetings of the thrust to consider protocols for consideration and approval Of the Research Committee. 1. 3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Institutions are made up of human beings and as such conflicts and how to resolve them are an integral part of institutional culture. Unfortunately most institutions fail to put in place structures and mechanisms to deal with conflicts when they emerge. In other words, most institutions are not proactive with respect to the issue of conflicts and conflicts resolution. This study aims to address the perceived problem of; Misunderstanding that sometimes arises between management staff and employees, between employees and among other external stakeholders due to individual differences, perceptions, beliefs and goals. The use of techniques to resolve conflict at CRAIG. 1. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study will be guided by the following objectives: a) To identify the nature and forms of conflicts at CRAIG b) To understand the main issues that generate conflicts that arises at CRICK c) To determine the negative impact of conflict. D) To identify the processes that the management Of CRAIG employs to resolve inflicts at its workplaces. 1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS TO address the above Objectives, the study seeks to answer the following research questions? A. What are the forms or types of conflicts that prevail at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana? . What are the main causes of these conflicts? C. What mechanisms or processes or techniques do CRAIG employ to resolve conflicts at the workplace? D. What mechanisms or processes or techniques do CRAIG employ to resolve conflicts at the workplace? E. How effective have the adopted processes, techniques or structures been in the resolution of conflicts at CRAIG? SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study is limited to current structures, mechanisms, processes in place at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana, Taft-Akin.
It does not seek to explore past or historical events Vichy have shaped the institutional culture of CRAIG because of limitation of time. Consequently information collected on conflict management and resolution techniques are limited to those of the last ten years, OVERVIEW go STUDY This study is structured into five (5) chapters and each chapter ends with a summary Of the main issues covered and also introduces the reader to What is in store for the next chapter. Chapter one which is the introductory chapter provides the background Of the study, the statement Of the problem, the objectives and scope of the study .
Chapter two focuses on the literature on conflict management and resolution techniques in a workplace. Current thinking on these concepts are explored and presented within the organizational cultures. Chapter three describes the methodology and methods employed in the study. It also describes the data collection process including the design of the data collection instruments, administration of the questionnaires, data input into a computer, data cleaning and processing. Chapter four: In This Chapter, all the results of the study are presented using various formats including tables and figures.
Chapter 5 is conclusions reached and recommendations made thereof are presented in this chapter. CHAPTER TWO 2. 1: INTRODUCTION This chapter reviews the literature on conflicts, their effects and methods of resolution, Conflict occurs because individuals have different perceptions, beliefs and goals. Conflict can be a serious problem in any organization. It can certainly affect an organization’s performance negatively and lead to loss of good employees and decline in productivity.
Despite this, not all conflicts are bad, as they sometimes bring about positive consequences such as creating room for new ideas to be shared, stimulating creativity, motivating change, and seen. ‘inning as a safety valve to indicate problem and so on. However, when conflict in the organization does not bring about positive results, it becomes necessary to take measures against such conflict as it might lead to negative consequences such as wasting of resources. Breaking of good cohesion, creating negative climate, psychological effect, and increase in hostility and aggressive behavior among there. 2. : DEFINITIONS OF CONFLICT Conflict is when tuft or more values, perspectives and opinions are contradictory in nature and have not been aligned or agreed about yet, including: oneself when one is not living according to your values, when values and perspectives are threatened; or Discomfort from fear of the unknown or from lack of fulfillment. Conflict is inevitable and often good, tort example, good teams always go through a “form, storm, norm and perform” period, Getting the most out to diversity means often-contradictory values, perspectives and opinions. The importance of conflict resolution is very crucial to any organization.
This is evidence based on the attention devoted to it by a host forfeiters. These writers try to explain what conflict is, how it is generated in the organization, methods that can be employed to resolve it and the benefits that the organization obtains from it. According to Cole (I conflict is a condition that arises whenever the perceived interest of individual or group clashes with those of another group in such a way that strong emotions arise and comprise is not an option, Conflict, when managed effectively can lead to organizational growth but when shingled, can give rise to counterproductive behaviors in which both sides lose.
Lousier (1996) sees conflict to exist whenever two or more parties are in disagreement. Moorhens and Griffin (1992) endorse the general principle underling the definition of conflict but gives further explanation that conflict has both positive and negative characteristics. Nelson and Quick (1994) prefer to define conflict as any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotion, behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between NON or more parties. Mullions (2008) in his book, Management and Organizational Behavior defines inflict as behavior intended to obstruct the achievement of some other person’s goals.
He further observed that conflict s based on the incompatibility of goals and arises from opposing behaviors, which can be viewed at the individual, group or organizational level, The Trio Arnold, Feldman and Hunt (1992) defines conflict as a social situation or process in which two parties (individual, group, organization, and nation) believe that their goals and the goals of other parties cannot be met simultaneously and therefore oppose or inhibit one another goal attainment. Conflict therefore is any kind of opposition or antagonistic/ interaction between two or more parties.
It must however be noted that the market place with its increasing competition and globalization, magnifies perception, languages, culture and national backgrounds which in most cases have potential incompatibility with its attendant conflict Moorhens and Griffin (1992) endorse the general principle underling the definition of conflict but gives further explanation that conflict has both positive and negative characteristics. The various definitions reflect the various facets of the concept of conflict. TYPES go CONFLICT INTER-GROUP CONFLICT
This occurs conflict occurs between groups or teams. Conflict been groups can have predictable effects Within each group such as increased group cohesiveness, increased focus on task and increased loyalty to the group. In addition, groups in conflict tend to develop an “us against them” mentality where each group sees the other as the enemy and becomes more hostile and decreases its communication with the other group INTER. PERSONAL CONFLICT This is the conflict that occurs between two or more people.
Individual differences may lead to conflict in personalities, attitudes, values and receptions, INTRA-PERSONAL CONFLICT When a conflict occurs between an individual, it is called intra-personal conflict. Examples include: Inter-role conflict which occurs when a person experiences conflicts among multiple roles in his or her elite. One inter-role conflict that many employees experience is work/home conflict in which their roles as workers clash with their as spouse or parents. For example, when a child gets sick at school the parents often must leave work to care for the sick child.
Intra-role conflict: this is a conflict within a single role. It often arises when a person receives conflicting sausages from role senders about how to perform a certain role. For instance, when a manager receives counsel from his departmental head that he needs to socialize with non-management employees and at the same time he is told by his project manager that he needs to be a better team member and that it can only be accomplished by socializing more with the other non-management team can spark intra-role conflict.
Personal role conflict: it occurs when an individual in a particular role is expected to perform behaviors that clash with his or her values. An example is when sales people are required to offer the most expensive item o a customer Who does not want or cannot afford the item. This may lead to conflict with the sales man’s values and may therefore experience personal role conflict. SOURCES OF CONFLICT workplace Conflict Donnas (1999) describes effective management of workplace conflict as an understanding of the nature and sources of conflict in the workplace.
Conflict occurs when there is a perception of incompatible interests between workplace participants. This should be distinguished from disputes. Disputes are merely a by-product of conflict. They are the outward articulation of conflict. Typical spites come in the form of formal court cases, grievances, arguments, threats and counter threats etc. Conflict can exist without disputes, but disputes do not exist without conflict. Conflict, however, might not be so easily noticed. Much conflict exists in every workplace without turning into disputes.
The first step in uncovering workplace conflict is to consider the typical sources of conflict. There are a variety of sources of workplace conflict including interpersonal, organizational, change related, and external factors. Interpersonal conflict is the most apparent form of conflict for workplace participants. It is easy enough to observe the results of office politics, gossip, and rumors. Also language and personality styles often clash, creating a great deal of conflict in the workplace. In many workplaces there are strong Ethan-cultural and racial sources of conflict as well as gender conflict.
This may lead to charges of harassment and discrimination or at least the feeling that such things exist. People often bring their stresses from home into the Office leading to further conflict. An additional source of workplace conflict can be found in varying ideas about personal success. The strong drive for work related achievement in some participants can clash with participants who do not emphasize work-related success in their lives. There are a variety of ways to uncover such sources of conflict, including the use of personality testing instruments like Myers-Briggs, Thomas-Kalmia.
FIRE-B, and Personality Dynamics profiles. In addition to this, confidential surveys, interviews and focus groups can be a good way of uncovering interpersonal sources of conflict. Organizational Conflict: There are a number of organizational sources of conflict, Those relating to hierarchy and the inability to resolve conflicting interests are quite predominant in most workplaces. Labor/management and supervisor/employee tensions are heightened by power differences. Differences in supervisory styles between departments can be a cause to conflict. Also there can he work style clashes, seniority/seniority and pay equity conflict.
Conflict can arise over resource allocation, the distribution of duties, workload and benefits, different levels of tolerance for risk taking, and varying views on accountability, In addition, conflict can arise where there are perceived or actual differences in treatment between departments or groups of employees. A thorough review of the workplace is suggested for such sources of conflict. Again surveys, interviews and focus groups can help reveal these sources of conflict Additionally, organizational sources of conflict can be predicted based upon best practices from similar organizations.
All organizations experience such conflict. Much can be learned from the lessons of similar organizations that have made a study of this source Of conflict. CAUSES OF CONFLICT Although conflict is often viewed negatively, it can lead to enlightenment if solutions are reached. The first logical steps in resolving conflict is to identify he problem and then identify what caused the conflict. Art Bell (2002) suggests six reasons for conflict in the workplace: conflicting needs, conflicting styles, conflicting perceptions, conflicting goals, conflicting pressures, and conflicting roles.
Brett Hart (2000) discusses two additional causes of conflict: different personal values and unpredictable policies. Conflicting Needs Whenever workers compete for scarce resources, recognition, and power in the company’s “pecking order”, conflict can occur. Since everyone requires a share of the resources (twice space, supplies, the boss’s time, or the budget fund) to omelet their jobs (Hart, 2002), it should come as no surprise when the *have- onto” gripe and plot against the Weaves” (Bell, 2002). Conflicting Styles Because individuals are individuals, they differ in the way they approach people and problems.
Associates need to understand their own style and learn how to accept conflicting style’* Personality tests, such as Myers-Briggs Personality Type Inventory (AMBIT), can help people explore their instinctive personality styles (Bell, 2002). An example Of conflicting styles would be where One worker works best in a very structured environment while another worker works best in an unstructured environment. These two workers could easily drive each Other crazy if they constantly work in conflict with one another and do not learn to accept one another’s work style.
Conflicting Perceptions Just as two or more workers can have conflicting styles, they can also have conflicting perceptions. They may view the same incident in dramatically different ways. Bell (2002) gives an example of what might happen if a new administrative assistant were hired in the organization. One associate might see the new hire as an advantage (one more set of hands to get the job done), while another associate might see the same new hire as an insult (an clear message that the current associates are not performing adequately).
Memos, performance company rumors, hallway comments, and client feedback are sources for conflicting perceptions. What was meant gets lost in a firestorm of responses to perceived wrongs (Bell, 2002). Resentment and conflict can also occur when one department is viewed as more valuable to the organization than others (Hart, 2002). Conflicting Goals Associates may have different viewpoints about an incident, plan, or goal. Problems in the workplace can occur when associates are responsible for efferent duties in achieving the same goal Take for instance the scenario of a patient being admitted to a hospital.
The business office is responsible for documenting financial information and getting paid, whereas the nursing staff is responsible for the patient’s physical assessment and immediate admission. Both objectives are important and necessary, but may cause conflict (Bell (2002). Brett Hart (2000) offers another example. Imagine a bank tellers dilemma in a situation where he is being given conflicting responsibilities by two Of his managers. The head teller has instructed the staff that rapid service is the top rarity, whereas the community relations director has instructed the staff that that quality customer service is the top priority.
One can imagine how quickly problems could arise between the teller and the head teller if speed is sacrificed for quality time with the customer. Conflicting Pressures Conflicting pressures can occur when two or more associates or departments are responsible for separate actions with the same deadline. For example, Manager A needs Associate A to complete a report by 3:00 p. M. , which is the same deadline that Associate B needs Associate A to have a machine fixed. In addition, Manager B (who does not know the machine is broken) now wants Associate B to use the unbeknownst broken machine before 3:00 p. . What is the best solution? The extent to which we depend on each other to complete our work can contribute greatly to conflict (Hart, 2002), Conflicting Roles Conflicting roles can occur when an associate is asked to perform a function that is outside his job requirements or expertise or another associate is assigned to perform the same job. This situation can contribute to power struggles for territory. This causes intentional or unintentional aggressive or passive- aggressive (sabotage) behavior. Everyone has experienced situations where associates have believed their power in inappropriate ways.
Different Personal Values Conflict can be caused by differing personal values. Segregation in the workplace leads to gossiping, suspicion, and ultimately, conflict (Hart, 2002). Associates need to learn to accept diversity in the workplace and to work as a team. Unpredictable Policies Whenever company policies are changed, inconsistently applied, or non-existent, misunderstandings are likely to occur. Associates need to know and understand many rules and policies; they should not have to guess. Otherwise, unpredictable things can occur such as associates dressing inappropriately or giving out wrong information.
The absence of clear policies or policies that are constantly changing can create an environment of uncertainty and conflict (Hart, 2002). 2. 7: THE EVOLUTION OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT The early approach to conflict management was based on the assumption that all conflict was bad and would always be counterproductive to organizational goals, Conflict management, therefore, was synonymous with conflict avoidance. This left the people experiencing the conflict with essentially only one outcome: a win-lose scenario, In such cases, the loser would feel slighted and this, in turn, would lead to renewed belligerence.
Therefore, most managers viewed conflict as something they must eliminate from their organization This avoidance approach to conflict management was prevalent during the latter part of the nineteenth century and continued until the mid-l eggs. Nevertheless, conflict avoidance is not a satisfactory strategy for dealing with most conflict. Conflict avoidance usually leaves those people who are being avoided feeling as if they are being selected. Also, conflict avoidance usually fails to reconcile the perceived differences that originally caused the conflict.
As a result, the Original basis for the conflict continues unabated, held in check only temporarily until another confrontation arises to set the same unresolved tensions into motion again. Therefore, conflict avoidance strategies are not especially useful in the long run. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES According to Trio Arnold, Feldman and Hunt (1992), there are a variety of conflict management style opened to managers and one way of classifying conflict management style is to examine the style’s assertiveness (the extent to which you want your goals met) and cooperativeness (the extent to which you want to see the other parts concern met).
Examples of conflict management style are: Avoidance- this occurs when any group member chooses not to disagree or to bring up a conflicting point. It is the basis to corruption- members choose to go along with the crowd rather than bring up potential problems or disagree with the favored decision or proposal. This style can also be appropriate at times when the issue is not important to the group. The refusal to speak up at these mimes can often be positive because it will avoid a conflict rather than spark one.
Accommodation- this is also called “appeasement” or “giving in”, This occurs when one person gives into another without making much of an argument for a different point of view. One should be honest with themselves should they choose to accommodate. Don’t give in if the issue is really important to the group or one’s own interest This can Only hurt the group in the long run if not done with thought. Collaboration- this is sometimes referred to as the “win- Win” style Of conflict management. This occurs when the people in the conflict re motivated to meet the opposing parties’ needs along with their own needs.